Canine Domestication, Social
Structure and Behavioural Influences
Variations in Social Behaviour: Free-Ranging Dogs
Most of the world’s dogs are free-ranging, not controlled by humans, though still influenced. Their social systems differ greatly from wolves and pet dogs and vary by region and environment (Range & Marshall-Pescini, 2022).
Loose Associations: Unlike the rigid, family-based packs of wolves, free-ranging dogs typically form loose, fluid groups. Membership in these groups is often temporary, with individuals joining or leaving based on food availability, breeding season, or threat levels. However, family members will secure the young (Pal, 2003; Range & Marshall-Pescini, 2022).
Resource-Driven Grouping: In areas with abundant waste or environmental factors that influence roaming and social behaviour, like urban India (Pal, 2003; Sen Majumder et al., 2016) or parts of Italy (Rojas-Troncoso et al., 2025), dogs gather in larger groups, foraging alone but sharing territories (Biswas et al., 2023). Where food is scarce, solitary or small groups are more typical (Berman & Dunbar, 1983).
Hierarchy and Combative Behaviour:
While classical ethology often described social organisation in terms of linear dominance hierarchies, increasing evidence in domestic species such as dogs and horses supports more flexible, relationship-based social structures characterised by individual roles, social cohesion, and context-dependent agonistic interactions
(Górski et al., 2026)
Aggression in FRDs often centres on territoriality, resources, or mating privileges (Miklósi & Topal, 2013; Miklósi, 2014). Usually, this behaviour occurs only when resources are scarce or during mating season (Pal, 2014; Pal, 2003). Instead, these dogs mainly avoid conflict through distancing and communication (Rojas-Troncoso et al., 2025). This may explain why conflicts from home-dwelling dogs often stem from resource management.
Variability Across Regions: Studies in places like Moscow (Safarov et al., 2022), Bangkok (Hiby et al., 2025), and South America (Rojas-Troncoso et al., 2025) reveal unique social patterns, shaped by local human behaviour, climate, or food sources. For example, in some cities, free-ranging dogs are semi-tolerated and may be fed intentionally (Nayeri et al., 2025), while in others, they survive on discarded waste (Butler et al., 2018).